Meal Timing: Recommendations For Weight Loss, Appetite Control, And Athletic Performance

Jesse Oswald • February 24, 2024

Meal Timing Key Points:

  • Meal timing is the strategic scheduling of eating whole foods, fortified foods, and dietary supplements.
  • Meal timing helps you create an eating routine that keeps you energized, focused, and productive throughout the day.
  • Correctly timing your meals can help with weight loss and appetite control, stabilize blood glucose, and improve exercise performance and recovery.
  • Some challenges of appropriately timing meals include hormonal fluctuations, sleep schedules when an individual has time to exercise and work schedules.
  • Re-evaluate your meal timing routine as necessary as lifestyle and exercise goals change.

What Do I Need To Know About Meal Timing?

Meal or nutrient timing is the strategic scheduling of eating whole foods, fortified foods, and dietary supplements. More specifically, a person may eat a specific nutrient in a particular amount at an exact time for a specific reason.


If that sounds like a mouthful…well…it is. To simplify things, let's create an example.


If I’m a person looking to lose weight, I would :


  • Focus on eating a healthy balance of carbs, fats, and proteins.
  • With a daily macronutrient breakdown of 45-65% carbs, 10-25% protein, and 20-35% fat.
  • Eat 50-70% of my calories in the morning.
  • Eat 20% of my calories in the afternoon
  • Eat 10% of my calories in the evening.
  • Timing meals and snacks in this fashion has led to weight loss.


That, in essence, is what meal timing is all about. In addition to using meal timing for exercise benefits, it can also be used for appetite control, blood sugar regulation, weight loss, muscle strength, size, and recovery.


So far, meal timing sounds swell! Next, let’s discuss why it matters.

Why Meal Timing Matters

Meal timing matters for a lot of different reasons. One of the significant reasons is it helps you maintain a better routine. This is key when trying to stick to a diet, as when dialled in, meal timing can take a lot of the guesswork out of an eating schedule.


Proper meal timing also matters because of it:


  • It keeps you energized throughout the day.
  • It helps you avoid blood sugar crashes to stay focused and productive.
  • Regulates mood swings.
  • It enables you to feel your best before exercise.
  • Promotes a great night's sleep.
  • Optimizes muscle and whole-body recovery.


If you’re still not convinced that hopping on the meal timing train is a good idea, let’s briefly look at the health and performance benefits before diving into the research. This is the juicy stuff you’re going to want to know!

Meal Timing Benefits

Correctly timing your meals and snacks can benefit overall health and exercise/athletic performance. These include:


  • Weight Loss
  • Appetite Control
  • Blood Sugar Regulation
  • Energy For Cardio And Endurance Exercise
  • Increased Muscle Strength, Size, And Recovery 


Let’s look at these benefits and see what the research recommends.

What The Research Says On Meal Timing

Fortunately for us, there isn’t a shortage of evidence regarding research on meal timing. Hundreds of clinical trials have been performed on thousands of subjects that have examined how meal timing can affect health, performance, and other variables in sedentary, obese, and athletic populations.


After reading this section, you’ll practically have your Ph.D. in meal timing.

Weight Loss

If one of your main goals is weight loss, the evidence suggests there is an ideal time to eat.


A landmark study conducted in 1997 required subjects to complete two six-week diet periods that delivered similar calories (~ 1950 kcals) and similar macronutrient composition. 


In one group, the participants consumed 70% of their total daily calories during breakfast, while in the other study group, participants consumed 70% of their total daily calories during dinner. 


The researchers discovered more significant weight loss in the group that ate most of their daily calories at breakfast. 


More recently, a study conducted by Jakubowicz et al. had overweight and obese women consume 1400 calories each day for 12 weeks. 


One group ate 50% of their daily calories (700 kcals) during breakfast, 35% during lunch (500 kcals), and 15% during dinner (200 kcals), while the other group ate the exact opposite distribution, 15% for breakfast (200 kcals), 35% for lunch (500 kcals) and 50% for dinner (700 kcals). 


Approximately 2.5 times more weight was lost, and significantly greater changes in waist circumference and body mass index values were observed when most calories were consumed at breakfast. 


Also, triglyceride levels decreased by 34%, more significant improvements in glucose and insulin were observed, and feelings of satiety were improved in the group that consumed most of their calories at breakfast.


The key point from these two studies indicates that if weight loss is your goal, eat more in the morning and less in the evening.

Appetite Control

Just as eating more in the morning and less in the evening helps with weight loss, the same can be said about appetite control and suppression.


A 2019 study published in the Obesity Journal demonstrates this.


For this study, researchers compared two groups of people (early eating and the control group) who ate the same three meals per day for four days but at different times. The early eating group ate the majority of their calories during the morning. The control group consumed the majority of their calories in the evening.


On the fourth day of the study, both groups had their metabolism measured…specifically calories burned and the amount of fat, carbs, and proteins burned. Both groups also rated various measures of appetite, like hunger, desire to eat, and fullness.


The researcher also measured levels of hunger hormones in each group.


The results are fascinating. The early eating group burned more calories and fat while having lower levels of the hunger hormone ghrelin. The group also reported less hunger and desire to eat than the control group.


If appetite control is ever an issue for you, eating most of your calories at breakfast and lunch is suggested.

Blood Sugar Regulation

Blood sugar spikes are no joke. Too high, and they can cause you to feel anxious and jittery. Too low can cause hypoglycemia, that horrible lightheaded and tired feeling. 


It should also be noted that eating a large amount of carbs, such as a bowl of pasta, at 10 pm compared to 10 am will cause a higher blood glucose spike due to fluctuations in your circadian rhythm. Individuals should eat more carbs in the morning and less in the evening/night.


Meal timing can play a big part in helping to avoid the lows and highs of blood sugar levels and help keep it steady so you remain energized and focused.


The strategy here is to never go too long between meals and snacks and eat every 3-4 hours. This schedule will help stabilize blood glucose levels and avoid blood sugar spikes. 


It also helps people avoid overeating when hungry and consume fat-laden, calorie-dense foods to satisfy their appetite.

Energy For Cardio And Endurance Exercise

Carbs are king when fueling endurance exercise, especially as intensity increases. Therefore, people can strategically time their meals/carbs when they want to run, bike, or do other endurance exercises for optimal performance. Here are the guidelines that also include a note on post-workout meal timing for recovery.


Pre Workout Meal Timing

  • Eat carbs three to four hours before your planned exercise time to saturate muscle glycogen stores and elevate blood glucose. The amount you eat/need will depend on your gender, exercise levels, and goals. Getting a metabolic test done to determine your specific carb needs is recommended.
  • Sixty minutes before exercise, eat a small number of carbs if needed. Focus on eating simple sugars from foods like bananas or sports drinks.
  • Fifteen minutes before training, another 20-50 grams of carbohydrates can be consumed if needed and won’t cause gastrointestinal distress.



Post Workout Meal Timing

  • Eat 1.2 grams of carbs per kilogram of body weight per hour for 3-4 hours to restore muscle glycogen.
  • Combine the carbs with 25-30 grams of a high-quality protein like whey. This will kickstart muscle recovery and help with glycogen resynthesis.

Muscle Strength, Size, And Recovery

If you want to get stronger or put on size, meal timing for strength training differs from endurance training. The difference is that your pre and post-meal macronutrient profile will include fewer carbohydrates and more protein and amino acids.


Before and after strength training sessions, meal timing maximizes muscle protein synthesis, minimizes exercise-induced muscle damage, and facilitates short and long-term training adaptations (strength, size, power, endurance). 


Pre Workout Meal Timing

  • Twenty-five grams of high-quality protein or 5 grams of branched-chain amino acids and a small number of carbs. Protein can come from whole food sources or a high-quality whey protein. The BCAAs should contain at least 3 grams of leucine. 50-75 grams of carbs should be consumed. Combining protein or amino acids plus carbs will stimulate muscle protein synthesis while elevating blood glucose.


Post Workout Meal Timing

  • Like the pre-workout meal, one should consume another 25 grams of protein with more carbs (100-150 grams) to help muscle recovery and replenish glycogen.

Other Common Meal Timing Questions

What Role Does The Circadian Rhythm Play in Meal Timing?

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) located in our brains is responsible for controlling our circadian rhythms. It governs metabolic processes, energy generation, and energy usage. 


Irregular eating patterns can cause a separation of feedback between the SCN and food availability. This can change the metabolic processes of tissues due to several changes in gene rhythms, leading to erratic blood sugar levels and making us feel like we need to eat when we don’t. This is why it is crucial to develop a meal-timing routine. 


The circadian rhythm may also explain why eating more in the morning leads to more significant weight loss and appetite control. 


The research suggests:


  • The calories we burn from digesting, absorbing, and metabolizing the nutrients in our food –diet-induced thermogenesis – are influenced by our circadian system and are lower at 8 p.m. than at 8 a.m. 
  • This can further be explained by the secretion of hormones like ghrelin and leptin (hunger hormones) that fluctuate throughout the day.
  • Multiple studies have confirmed that eating most of your calories in the morning lowers hunger pangs and cravings throughout the day. This lessens your chances of overeating in the evening night.
  • Finally, a study published in the Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism discovered that people who eat a big breakfast burn twice as many calories as those who eat a large dinner.


Should I Eat Every 3-4 Hours?

Yes! As mentioned, eating every 3-4 hours will help keep blood glucose levels stable. This will help with appetite control, blood sugar spikes, and hypoglycemia and energize you throughout the day.


Should I Eat Right Before A Workout?

It depends. If eating right before a workout upsets your stomach, it might be best to avoid a small snack beforehand. On the other hand, if you need more energy before cardio or strength training, eat 50 grams of carbs fifteen minutes before starting. A banana or sports drink would be a good choice.


Should I Eat Right Before Bed?

Avoid eating any large meal three to four hours before bed. This will give your body plenty of time to digest and absorb nutrients without causing you to toss and turn all night.


Eating a large meal before bed can also cause acid reflux due to the horizontal position of the body during sleep. Stomach pain is common in individuals who have large meals close to bedtime.


Another reason to avoid large meals before bedtime is high blood sugar can minimize the release of growth hormones several times throughout the night. This can affect muscle and whole-body recovery.


If you’re hungry before bed, opt for a small snack with a small amount of fat, protein, and carbs. Cottage cheese with fruit would be a good choice.

Sample Meal Timing & Exercise Schedule

  • 6 am: Wake Up
  • 6:30am - 7am: Breakfast
  • 9 am - 10am: Exercise
  • Post-workout snack immediately after exercise
  • 12 pm -12:30 pm: Lunch
  • 4 pm: Snack
  • 5 pm - 6 pm: Afternoon exercise if no morning exercise was performed
  • 6:30 pm - 7:00 pm: Dinner
  • 10 pm: Bedtime

The Bottom Line On Meal Timing

When and what you eat can affect your health and exercise performance. Therefore, following the advice above and developing a meal plan that works for you is recommended. To recap:


  • Eat most of your calories in the morning for weight loss and appetite control. As the famous saying goes, eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper.
  • To keep blood glucose steady, eat every 3-4 hours. This will help you avoid blood sugar spikes while keeping you energized and focused.
  • Eat carbs leading up to endurance exercise to top off muscle glycogen and elevate blood glucose.
  • Eat protein or amino acids with a small number of carbs before and after strength training. This will maximize muscle protein synthesis, minimize exercise-induced muscle damage, and facilitate short and long-term training adaptations.


Your meal timing plan should be re-evaluated as necessary, depending on your lifestyle and athletic goals.



References:


  • Kerksick, C. M., Arent, S., Schoenfeld, B. J., Stout, J. R., Campbell, B., Wilborn, C. D., ... & Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand nutrient timing. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition, 14(1), 1-21.
  • Xiao, Q., Garaulet, M., & Scheer, F. A. (2019). Meal timing and obesity: Interactions with macronutrient intake and chronotype. International journal of obesity, 43(9), 1701-1711.
  • Paoli, A., Tinsley, G., Bianco, A., & Moro, T. (2019). The influence of meal frequency and timing on human health: the role of fasting. Nutrients, 11(4), 719.
  • Thomas, E. A., Zaman, A., Cornier, M. A., Catenacci, V. A., Tussey, E. J., Grau, L., ... & Rynders, C. A. (2020). Later meal and sleep timing predicts higher percent body fat. Nutrients, 13(1), 73.
  • Moran-Ramos, S., Baez-Ruiz, A., Buijs, R. M., & Escobar, C. (2016). When to eat? The influence of circadian rhythms on metabolic health: are animal studies providing the evidence?. Nutrition research reviews, 29(2), 180-193.
  • Wang, C., Almoosawi, S., & Palla, L. (2021). Relationships Between Food Groups and Eating Time Slots According to Diabetes Status in Adults From the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–2017). Frontiers in nutrition, 8.
  • Lopez-Minguez, J., Gómez-Abellán, P., & Garaulet, M. (2019). Timing of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Effects on obesity and metabolic risk. Nutrients, 11(11), 2624.
  • Ravussin, E., Beyl, R. A., Poggiogalle, E., Hsia, D. S., & Peterson, C. M. (2019). Early time-restricted feeding reduces appetite and increases fat oxidation but does not affect energy expenditure in humans. Obesity, 27(8), 1244-1254.
  • Richter, J., Herzog, N., Janka, S., Baumann, T., Kistenmacher, A., & Oltmanns, K. M. (2020). Twice as high diet-induced thermogenesis after breakfast vs dinner on high-calorie as well as low-calorie meals. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 105(3), e211-e221.

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Highlights Healthcare expenses are skyrocketing, with consumers and employers facing the significant brunt. Identifying those likely to get sick is critical as our resource-strapped healthcare system should focus on those likely to become the most significant burden to the system. VO2 max is a crucial longevity indicator that can also accurately predict healthcare expenses. The rampant chronic disease epidemic and the resulting surge in medical expenses is one of the most dire problems of modern societies, probably only second to climate change. Healthcare inflation is on a meteoric rise, and for those with limited or no healthcare coverage, a medical emergency is the equivalent of personal bankruptcy. A dire problem for employers In the US, employers and consumers who face rising health insurance premiums and astronomical out-of-pocket medical expenses feel the brunt of rising healthcare costs. Such is the problem that even large, well-capitalized corporations choose to send employees overseas for specific medical procedures since the cost of traveling and treatment in a foreign country is lower than the cost of care in the US. Another startling example is the infamous "northern caravan," a term that describes people with diabetes in the northern states who travel to Canada to secure their insulin supply. According to McKinsey , a survey conducted among over 300 employers highlighted that the average increase in the cost of health benefits over the past three years has been within the range of 6 to 7 percent. This survey also indicated that any rate increases exceeding 4 to 5 percent were deemed unsustainable. Interestingly, 95 percent of the surveyed employers expressed willingness to contemplate reducing benefits if costs surged by 4 percent or more. The primary cost-control measures that these employers indicated they might explore included elevating the portion of premium costs covered by employees and a potential transition to high-deductible health plans. Why is Breath Analysis relevant? Vis-a-vis this problem, the early and accurate estimation of who will get sick and how much they will cost is as critical as the treatment itself. The reason is that no other method of accurately identifying at-risk populations exists; it helps focus our scarce prevention resources and attention on those most in need. Breath analysis, AKA VO2max or metabolic testing, is an assessment that reveals two key biomarkers that provide significant predictive value for one's likelihood of developing costly chronic conditions. These two biomarkers are VO2max and the Respiratory Exchange Ratio. In this article, we will dive into VO2max to understand why it's a critical reflection of our overall health and, consequently, a window into our future healthcare spend. What is VO2max? Let's start with the basics. What is VO2max? VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen the human body can absorb. It is measured in terms of milliliters of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight. The below formula below indicates how VO2max is calculated: The numerator indicates the volume of oxygen your heart, lungs, and cells can absorb, expressed in milliliters per minute. The denominator indicates the weight of the individual represented in kilograms. 
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By Jesse Oswald • January 13, 2025
Key points A total fat intake between 20-35% ensures sufficient intake of essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins Omega-6 PUFAs are primarily found in vegetable oils, while omega-3 PUFAs are primarily found in fatty fish and fish oils Both omega-3 PUFAs and MUFAs have established benefits for cardiovascular disease TFAs are the only dietary lipids that have a strong positive relationship with cardiovascular disease Omega-3 PUFA supplementation increases the beneficial bacteria of the human microbiome Over the last three decades, there has been a great revolution against fat due to its suspected association with several nutritional health issues, especially cardiovascular disease. There was a tremendous amount of evidence that indicated dietary cholesterol and saturated fat as the main culprits of cardiovascular disease, thus morbidity and mortality. It was when all the low-fat and no-fat dairy products started to launch, promising even complete substitution of the cholesterol-lowering heart medication if these products were exclusively consumed. Let’s start from the beginning. Dietary fat intake can vary significantly and still meet energy and nutrient needs. International guidelines suggest a total fat intake between 20% and 35% of the daily caloric consumption. This range ensures sufficient intake of essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins. Not only does the quantity of the ingested fat matter, but most importantly, its quality. Some dietary fats have beneficial effects, with a significant role in maintaining good health, while others may threaten it. Which are, after all, the dietary fats? Dietary fats is a rather heterogeneous group of organic compounds, including four main types of fat, which are elaborately described in the following sections of this article. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have two or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Omega-6 PUFAs and omega-3 PUFAs are the main types of PUFAs and are classified according to the location of the first unsaturated bond (sixth and third carbon atom, respectively). Alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are the most important omega-3 PUFAs. ALA is an essential fatty acid that can only be obtained from diet and can be converted into EPA and then to DHA, but the rate of this conversion is finite, approximately 7.0%–21% for EPA and 0.01%–1% for DHA. In the same way, the most important omega-6 PUFAs are linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (ARA). LA is an essential fatty acid that, in order to give rise to ARA, needs to be ingested through the diet as the human body cannot synthesize it. The recommended intake for total PUFA ranges between 5% and 10% of the total energy intake, while a total omega-3 PUFA intake of 0.5%–2% and a total omega-6 PUFA intake of 2.5%-5% is suggested. A dietary ratio of omega−6/omega−3 PUFA is recommended to be 1:1–2:1 to balance their competing roles and achieve health benefits. Omega-6 and omega-3 PUFAs Omega-6 PUFAs, in the form of LA, are plentiful in most crop seeds and vegetable oils, such as canola, soybean, corn, and sunflower oils. In contrast to omega-6 PUFAs, omega-3 PUFAs are obtained from a limited range of dietary sources. Flax, chia, and perilla seeds are rich in ALA, with significant amounts also detected in green leafy vegetables. The consumption of fatty fish, such as salmon, sardines, tuna, trout, and herring, provides high amounts of EPA and DHA. Besides fish and their oils, small amounts of omega-3 PUFAs are also detected in red meat like beef, lamb, and mutton. All the above dietary sources provide EPA, DPA, DHA, LA, and ARA in different amounts, and their intake is necessary for normal physiological function. PUFAs play a critical role in many chronic diseases, affecting human cells by regulating inflammation, immune response, and angiogenesis. Omega-3 PUFAs’ role against hypertriglyceridemia has been clarified, and research indicates that systematically consuming oily fish can contribute to general heart protection. Supplementation with omega-3 PUFAs could potentially lower the risk of several cardiovascular outcomes, but the evidence is stronger for individuals with established coronary heart disease. Moreover, adequate EPA and DHA levels are necessary for brain anatomy, metabolism, and function. Although the mechanisms underlying omega-3 PUFAs' cardioprotective effects are still poorly understood, several studies have been conducted in this direction. Unfortunately, that does not hold true for their omega-6 counterparts, for which controversial emerging data tend to show anti-inflammatory behavior that needs to be further studied. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) In contrast to PUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are easily produced by the liver in response to the ingestion of carbohydrates. The main MUFA is oleic acid, found in plant sources, such as olive oil, olives, avocado, nuts, and seeds, while minimal amounts are also present in meat, eggs, and dairy products. Specific guidelines around MUFAs’ dietary consumption do not exist. Therefore, MUFAs are recommended to cover the remaining fat intake requirements to reach the total daily fat intake goal. A growing body of research shows that dietary MUFAs reduce or prevent the risk of metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hypertension by positively affecting insulin sensitivity, blood lipid levels, and blood pressure, respectively. Moreover, olive oil contains several bioactive substances, possessing anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities. According to a meta-analysis, consuming olive oil was linked to a lower risk of developing any sort of cancer, especially breast cancer and cancer of the digestive system. Another study found that an isocaloric replacement of 5% of the energy from saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with plant MUFAs led to an 11% drop in cancer mortality over a 16-year follow-up period. Therefore, including MUFAs in the everyday diet offers multifaceted benefits in chronic disease prevention and management, including cancer and general health promotion.  Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) form a heterogeneous group of fatty acids that contain only carbon-to-carbon single bonds. Whole-fat dairy, (unprocessed) red meat, milk chocolate, coconut, and palm kernel oil are all SFA-rich foods. These fatty acids have distinct physical and chemical profiles and varying effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins. Stearic, palmitic, myristic, and lauric acids are the principal SFAs found in most natural human diets. Dietary practice and guidelines recommend limiting SFA intake to <10% of the total energy (E%), while the American Heart Association suggests an even lower intake of <7 E% because total saturated fat consumption and LDL-C levels are positively correlated. However, the role of SFAs in CVDs is quite complex, and the evidence is heterogeneous. In a recent study with a 10.6-year follow-up period, which included 195,658 participants, there was no proof that consuming SFAs was linked to developing CVD while replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat was linked to an increased risk of CVD. Moreover, according to 6 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, cardiovascular outcomes and total mortality were not significantly impacted by substituting saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat. Even if these analyses were to be challenged, due to heterogenous evidence, the possible reduction in CVD risk associated with replacing SFAs with PUFAs in several studies may not necessarily be an outcome of SFAs’ negative effect but rather a potential positive benefit of PUFAs. Regarding SFAs' effect on different types of cancers, associations of their intake with an increased risk of prostate and breast cancer have been indicated. Conversely, a meta-analysis showed no link between SFA intake and a higher risk of colon cancer; similarly, consuming MUFAs, PUFAs, or total fat did not affect colon cancer risk. Hence, the role of SFA consumption in preventing, promoting, or having a neutral role in serious chronic diseases has not been fully elucidated yet. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are created industrially by partially hydrogenating liquid plant oils or can be naturally derived from ruminant-based meat and dairy products. TFAs are highly found in commercial baked goods, biscuits, cakes, fried foods, etc. Guidelines regarding TFAs are stringent and limit TFA intake to <1% of energy or as low as possible. In 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration declared that industrial TFAs are no longer generally recognized as safe and should be eliminated from the food supply as their consumption is strongly linked to various CVD risk factors. Specifically, TFA intake raises triglycerides and increases inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and hepatic fat synthesis, leading to a significantly increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). A meta-analysis suggested that increased TFA intake led to an increase in total and LDL-cholesterol and a decrease in HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Data also indicates that TFAs may influence carcinogenesis through inflammatory pathways, but the reported data are debatable. A recent study investigated the effects of all types of dietary fat intake on CVD risk. While PUFA, MUFA, and SFA intake were not linked to higher CVD risk, dietary TFA intake showed a strong association with CVD risk. Analysis indicated PUFA intake and CVD risk were inversely correlated, and the relative risk of CVD was reduced by 5% in studies with a 10-year follow-up. Dietary lipids and the human microbiome Dietary lipids also affect human microbiota composition. Studies have identified a close association between the human microbiome and metabolic diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diets with a high omega-6 PUFA, SFA, and TFA intake increase the amount of many detrimental bacteria in the microbiome and reduce the amount of the beneficial ones, altering the microbiota composition and inducing inflammation via the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These bacteria may disrupt the gut barrier function, allowing lipopolysaccharides (LPS) translocation, which are bacterial toxins. This condition is linked to metabolic perturbations such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and CVD. On the contrary, omega-3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation increases beneficial bacteria and limits harmful ones, enhancing intestinal barrier functioning and preventing LPS translocation and its implications. Omega-3 PUFA supplementation has also been studied as a means of mental health disorders management, but the evidence is still controversial. A possible protective impact of fish consumption on depression has been suggested by various studies, as well as a possible protective effect of dietary PUFAs on moderate cognitive impairment. A recent review of meta-analyses indicated that omega-3 PUFA supplementation might have potential value in mental health disorders, but data credibility is still weak. Dietary lipids and obesity Last but not least, obesity and its management is another field that dietary lipids intake seems to impact with their mechanisms. A diet high in PUFA has been shown to lower the total mass of subcutaneous white adipose tissue (the predominant fat type in human bodies), reduce blood lipid levels, and improve insulin sensitivity. In a study comparing PUFA and MUFA isocaloric intake, PUFA was more advantageous and lowered visceral adiposity in patients with central obesity. By stimulating brown adipose tissue, which aids energy expenditure through its elevated thermogenic activity, omega-3 PUFAs seem to elicit these positive effects in fat tissue, thus being useful in preventing and/or managing obesity. Another related study compared PUFA to SFA overfeeding in dietary surplus conditions that aimed to increase weight by 3%. While SFA overfeeding led to weight gain, primarily through the expansion of the visceral adipose tissue, PUFA overfeeding also led to weight gain, but because of a greater expansion of lean tissue mass. To sum up, dietary fats are an essential part of the human diet with many important physiologic functions, including cell function, hormone production, energy, and nutrient absorption. Moreover, dietary fat consumption is associated with positive outcomes in regard to cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, cancer, and depression. Therefore, there is no reason to demonize this valuable dietary component, incriminating it for irrelevant adverse health outcomes, primarily weight loss failure and obesity. References 1. Astrup A, Magkos F, Bier DM, Brenna JT, de Oliveira Otto MC, Hill JO, King JC, Mente A, Ordovas JM, Volek JS, Yusuf S, Krauss RM. Saturated fats and health: A reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations: JACC State-of-the-Art review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(7):844-857. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077 2. Bojková B, Winklewski PJ, Wszedybyl-Winlewska M. Dietary fat and cancer-Which is good, which is bad, and the body of evidence. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(11):4114. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114114 3. Custers, Emma EM, Kiliaan, Amanda J. Dietary lipids from body to brain. Prog Lipid Res. 2022;85:101144. DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2021.101144 4. de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, Cozma AI, Ha V, Kishibe T, Uleryk E, Budylowski P, Schünemann H, Beyene J, Anand SS. Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 2015;351:h3978. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.h3978 5. Gao X, Su X, Han X, Wen X, Cheng C, Zhang S, Li W, Cai J, Zheng L, Ma J, Liao M, Ni W, Liu T, Liu D, Ma W, Han S, Zhu S, Ye Y, Zeng F-F. Unsaturated fatty acids in mental disorders: An umbrella review of meta-analyses. Adv Nutr. 2022;13(6):2217-2236. DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmac084 6. Liu AG, Ford NA, Hu FB, Zelman KM, Mozaffarian D, Kris-Etherton PM. A healthy approach to dietary fats: understanding the science and taking action to reduce consumer confusion. Nutr J. 2017;16(1):53. DOI: 10.1186/s12937-017-0271-4 7. Poli A, Agostoni C, Visioli F. Dietary fatty acids and inflammation: Focus on the n-6 series. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(5):4567. DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054567 8. Saini RK, Keum Y-S. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance-A review. Life Sci. 2018;203:255-267. DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.04.049 9. Saini RK, Prasad P, Sreedhar RV, Naidu KA, Shang X, Keum Y-S. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAS): Emerging plant and microbial sources, oxidative stability, bioavailability, and health benefits-A review. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(10):1627. DOI: 10.3390/antiox10101627 10. Zhao M, Chiriboga D, Olendzki B, Xie B, Li Y, McGonigal LJ, Maldonado-Contreras A, Ma Y. Substantial increase in compliance with saturated fatty acid intake recommendations after one year following the American Heart Association diet. Nutrients. 2018;10(10):1486. DOI: 10.3390/nu10101486 11. Zhu Y, Bo Y, Liu Y. Dietary total fat, fatty acids intake, and risk of cardiovascular disease: a dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lipids Health Dis. 2019;18:91. DOI: 10.1186/s12944-019-1035-2
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