The Steps to Longevity

Jesse Oswald • February 23, 2024

Key Points:

  • Chronic disease and deterioration of health don’t happen overnight. Poor nutrition, exercise, and a recovery program ensure long-term health.
  • Nutrition, training, and exercise all support the pillars of health and longevity, including Cellular, Heart, Lung, Gut, Mental, and Skeletal Muscle Health.
  • Understand how each type of training, nutrition, and recovery elements impact each pillar of health and longevity. 


Living a long, healthy life can be one of the most complicated goals. Most of us don’t know where to start, can’t establish a correlation between lifestyle choices and health benefits, and thus spend years experimenting based on empirical knowledge from health professionals, friends, and the media. It doesn’t have to be this way, though. Any significant and daunting endeavour can be turned into an achievable objective if you break it down into small, understandable, and actionable steps. This article discusses the pillars of longevity and the fundamental lifestyle choices influencing them. In simple terms, we aim to explain the focus areas and what you can do about them by leveraging nutrition, exercise, and recovery.

What is longevity made of?

Living a long and healthy life stems from ensuring that specific elements of our biology remain healthy. These include cardiovascular, pulmonary, cellular, skeletal muscle, mental, and gut health. 

Heart health: Our cardiovascular system includes our heart, arteries, and veins and gives rise to the most common and costly chronic conditions, including heart failure, coronary artery disease, and hypertension. It’s the most common cause of death in the developed world; consequently, high cardiovascular health is a prerequisite for longevity.

 

Lung health: The American Lung Association elevated lung disease as the leading cause of death this year. Unlike popular belief, the degradation of lung health can be caused by several factors, including air pollution, infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19), and chronic syndromes (e.g., COPD). Although pulmonary conditions may likely not be the immediate cause of death, their comorbidity with other more dangerous conditions, such as heart disease, threatens one’s life span. Moreover, their ability to hamper physical activity renders them a depreciation factor of life’s quality.

 

Cellular health: Cellular health is the third puzzle against chronic disease. Metabolic syndrome and obesity directly relate to how our cells utilize oxygen to burn nutrients and sustain life and power movement. Studies have now linked diabetes to our cells' inability to use oxygen effectively. Moreover, studies have shown that metabolic slowdown, where our cells use less oxygen and burn fewer calories than predicted, is the primary factor leading to weight loss failure. Obesity and diabetes consequently become the cause of life-threatening conditions such as heart disease and thus become the root cause of premature and, in most cases, expensive fatalities. 

 

Skeletal & muscle health: Skeletal and muscle deficiencies such as lower back pain and hip displacement are the primary factors depreciating quality of life. Moreover, due to their debilitating effect on physical activity, they become the root cause of obesity and metabolic syndrome, leading to cardiovascular and pulmonary conditions. These will, in turn, lead to lower quality and span of life. 

 

Mental health: Depression, stress, and anxiety can bring about physiological and life-threatening conditions through several pathways. First, they can be the root cause of physical activity and unhealthy eating habits. Moreover, as our blog post “The effects of chronic stress on energy balance” states, chronic stress can lead to several hormonal perturbations that promote visceral fat accumulation and increase the likelihood of metabolic syndrome independently of weight gain. The combination of these factors leads many to develop one or more common chronic conditions (i.e., cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic), leading to lower quality and span of life.

 

Gut health: Our gut is a complex “superorganism” that can positively or negatively affect our health in countless ways. An impaired gut microbiome can impair fat metabolism and energy absorption and affect our immune system, giving rise to a host of diseases, including pulmonary and metabolic syndrome. Moreover, our brain and gut are inextricably connected, which renders the gut microbiome a potent modulator of our mental health. Consequently, a healthy gut safeguards against metabolic, lung, cardiovascular, and cognitive disorders.

What can I do to live longer and better?

The short answer is to ensure all the systems mentioned above work correctly. To achieve this, however, one needs to employ different tools for each one of these systems. The table below summarizes the influence training, nutrition, supplementation, and recovery have on the other areas of our health.

Cellular health

Resistance training: Resistance training elevates your metabolism and prevents it from slowing down. This is of paramount importance as the metabolic slowdown is proven to be the most potent contributor to weight gain.

 

Interval training: Interval training increases growth hormone levels, essential for burning fat and maintaining and maintaining muscle mass.

 

Endurance training: Interval training increases growth hormone levels, essential for burning fat and maintaining muscle mass.

 

Micronutrient balance: Micronutrients have a central role in human metabolism. They are required for the appropriate functioning of energy production in the cells by metabolizing carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. A shortfall in any of them will be rate-limiting for energy production, with potential metabolic complications.

 

Macronutrient balance: Macronutrients are the nutritional components of food that the human body needs in large amounts for energy production (metabolism) and maintaining physiological functions. They include carbohydrates, fat, and protein. The diet macronutrient ratio doesn't directly influence weight. To optimally manage your weight, find a ratio you can stick with, whether a low-fat diet or a low-carb diet, etc., focus on healthy food choices across all food groups, and eat fewer calories than you burn.

 

Energy balance: Energy balance is the state achieved when energy intake from food equals energy expenditure from everyday activities and calories burnt at rest to perform essential functions such as breathing, heart beating, etc. (RMR). When the human body is in energy balance, body weight is stable. Body weight will decrease when the energy intake is lower than the energy expenditure, otherwise known as a caloric deficit. Irrespective of the type of diet (keto, vegetarian, Mediterranean, etc.) through which this caloric deficit will be accomplished, the most essential weight loss driver is the caloric deficit per se. With a sufficient caloric deficit, weight loss will be feasible. Body weight will increase when the energy intake is higher than the energy expenditure, otherwise known as caloric surplus.

 

Meal-timing: Meal timing may be crucial in obesity and weight loss treatment. In particular, it may affect 24-hour body cycles (circadian rhythm) that can predict weight loss. For example, night shift workers have an increased risk for obesity and may experience an increased appetite for energy-dense foods. More specifically, for people with the highest caloric intake until 2 hours before bedtime, the so-called evening chronotypes, the probability of being obese increases five times compared to people who eat the most significant proportion of their daily calories two hours after waketime, the so-called morning chronotypes. Moreover, it has been shown that eating your lunch late (after 3 p.m.) predicts difficulty in weight loss. However, meal timing can only be a potential tool to combat obesity since a sufficient caloric deficit will always be the most crucial determinant.

 

Adequate sleep: Maintaining a consistent sleep schedule with sufficient sleep time is vital for maintaining normal hormonal function, regulating hunger, and preventing stressed eating. It's also critical for recovering effectively and thus maintaining muscle mass and high metabolism.

Mental Health

Resistance/Interval/Endurance training: Every form of physical exercise significantly reduces stress, depression, and anxiety.

 

Micronutrient balance: Inadequate intake of micronutrients, which are particularly important for mental health, has been associated with inflammation in the central and peripheral nervous system (neuroinflammation); hence, mental disorders such as depression, sleep disorders, stress, and anxiety. Vitamin E, B12, folate, and magnesium are the most important micronutrients for mental health.

 

Macronutrient balance: A healthy dietary pattern affects not only the brain composition, structure, and function but also hormones, neuropeptides, and neurotransmitters, which play a crucial role in mental health. Fat is the most essential macronutrient for mental health, especially the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids EPA and DHA. They are found primarily in fatty fish, such as salmon, sardines, and fish oil. They can help alleviate mood disorders such as depression symptoms and decrease antidepressant medication dosages.

 

Energy balance: Obesity is positively associated with various mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Obesity also impacts the quality of life, with many obese people experiencing increased stigma and discrimination because of their weight.

 

Meal timing: Irregular meal timing has been associated with higher productivity loss through more significant problems with sleep and stress. It has also been correlated with higher neuroticism and lower subjective overall well-being scores and perceived mental health.

 

Adequate sleep: Maintaining a healthy schedule is critical for regulating anxiety and mental health. Sleep and mental health are undeniably connected bi-directionally, with sleep deprivation or sleep schedule distortion being fundamental drivers of all mental health issues ranging from anxiety to depression and panic attacks.

Muscle and Skeletal Health

Resistance/Interval/Endurance training: Resistance training is critical for maintaining bone density, joint strength, and proper posture. High bone density is essential for averting osteoporosis with aging, whereas joint strength and correct posture are essential for avoiding common injuries like lower back pain.

 

Micronutrient balance: Inadequate intake of micronutrients that contribute to the antioxidative capacity of the cells, such as vitamins A, B6, B12, and E, folate, selenium, and zinc, may be related to increased muscle fatigue and frailty. On the other hand, the micronutrients of most significant importance for bone health and, hence, osteoporosis prevention are calcium and vitamin D.

 

Macronutrient balance: An increased dietary protein intake is recommended to prevent bone loss. A higher percentage of carbohydrate energy intake is associated with a higher risk of low bone mineral density. Therefore, the isocaloric substitution between carbohydrates and protein is significantly associated with bone health. Similarly, protein is the essential macronutrient for gaining and maintaining muscle strength and size. However, all three macronutrients through a healthy, balanced diet are crucial to developing and maintaining muscle mass.

 

Energy balance: Increased body fat typically accompanies a concomitant increase in fat deposition within skeletal muscle, leading to sarcopenia (progressive loss of muscle mass and strength) and physical disability. The increase in fat mass is also frequently associated with a simultaneous decrease in muscle mass and, therefore, a reduced metabolic rate. Hence, sarcopenic obese individuals burn fewer calories at rest, and their progressive muscle weakness leads them to chronic inactivity and, thus, even lower energy expenditure. On the other hand, obesity may increase bone density because it is associated with higher mechanical loads, which may protect bones. However, overly obese people (BMI>35) are more likely to fall and break bones; hence, over a certain BMI, obesity does not protect against fractures and may even increase their risk.

 

Meal timing: Although meal timing does not somehow affect muscle and skeletal health, nutrient timing, i.e., when relative to exercise, someone ingests their macronutrients, carbohydrates, and protein, in particular, seems to maximize the muscle stimuli of the exercise that has been preceded. Protein is vital to supporting muscle growth and muscle recovery. Consuming 20g of protein within 30 minutes to 2 hours after exercise, particularly resistance training, will help the muscle tissue recover and aid skeletal muscle growth. This amount of protein is recommended to be complemented by a sufficient amount of carbohydrates in a ratio of 1:3 or 1:4.

 

Adequate sleep: A healthy sleep schedule is equivalent to adequate physical recovery. Too short or too long a sleeping schedule has been linked to skeletal muscle problems like lower back pain.

Gut Health

Resistance/Interval/Endurance training: All forms of exercise have been shown to elicit positive effects on the gut microbiome. Specifically, exercise:

  • Reduces intestinal permeability (the degree to which the surface of the digestive system is permeable to substances), thus blocking pathogens that may be found in the gut from entering the bloodstream.
  • Increases the diversity of beneficial gut bacteria that aid digestion.

Micronutrient balance: Micronutrients can modulate the diversity and composition of the gut microbiome, leading to the prevalence of beneficial bacteria and gut health or harmful bacteria and gut and overall health complications. This relationship is bidirectional since gut bacteria synthesize essential micronutrients, considerably impacting the micronutrient balance.

 

Macronutrient balance: Macronutrients have various effects on gut health, both positive and negative. Specifically, non-digestible plant-derived carbohydrates, named dietary fibre, can improve gut microbial diversity and promote gut health. Dietary fibre increases the population of health-beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. On the other hand, diets rich in saturated fat mainly derived from full-fat dairy products and animal-based foods such as beef and lamb harm the richness and diversity of gut microbiota.

 

Energy balance: The microorganisms that live in our gut (gut microbiota) could play a significant role in whether or not we become obese. Also, obesity per se seems to be able to change the composition of our gut microbiota by reducing its diversity and favouring a higher proportion of gut Firmicutes species compared to the Bacteroidetes species. These changes are associated with more marked overall fat accumulation and metabolic complications such as increased blood lipids (cholesterol) and glucose. Therefore, obesity and gut health share a bi-directional relationship where one determines the state of the other.

 

Meal timing: Meal timing does not seem to affect gut health in any other way other than increasing the possibility of experiencing heartburn and gut distress symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, etc., in general when having your large meal close to bedtime.

 

Adequate sleep: A healthy sleep schedule is critical for maintaining a healthy gut. Low sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, and irregular sleeping windows have been proven to negatively affect the gut microbiome in several ways. A compromised gut microbiome leads to digestive, metabolic, and mental disorders.

Heart Health

Resistance/Interval/Endurance training: Interval and endurance training are heart health's most potent positive factors. They positively affect all areas of the cardiovascular system, including the heart and blood, arteries, and veins. Specifically, they:

  • Strengthen the heart muscle
  • Prevent arterial clogging
  • Improve hemoglobin content in the blood

 

Micronutrient balance: A diet that prioritizes the consumption of a range of heart-healthy nutrients, including magnesium, potassium, B vitamins, vitamin D, and selenium, through the consumption of a variety of fruits and vegetables at every meal can lower the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and the overall incidence of cardiovascular diseases.

 

Macronutrient balance: Macronutrient balance has been linked to cardiovascular disease and related risk factors (high LDL and low HDL cholesterol). Specifically, increasing the consumption of monounsaturated fat (olive oil), omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (fatty fish), and good-quality carbohydrates (whole grains, fruits, vegetables) while decreasing the amount of saturated fat (full-fat dairy products, animal-based foods) and refined grains (sweets, white carbs) can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

 

Energy balance: Obesity accelerates the risk of developing cardiovascular disease by increasing circulating lipids (blood cholesterol and triglycerides) and blood pressure. Obesity is also associated with chronic inflammation and progressive physical activity decline and thus cardiorespiratory fitness, compromising heart health even more. This association is powerful when the excess fat deposition is in the abdominal area. This fat is called visceral fat and accumulates around vital organs, progressively leading to heart health issues.

 

Meal timing: Nighttime eating, defined as consuming food after bed, has been associated with a 55% greater risk of cardiovascular disease than non-nighttime eating. Although eating your largest meal late in the day could pose a greater risk for heart health issues, most results arise from observational studies and not from clinical studies, which would address the causality between meal timing and cardiovascular disease. Such studies have failed to demonstrate a direct link between meal timing and heart health. Therefore, based on current scientific evidence, meal timing is not a strong determinant of heart health.

 

Adequate sleep: A healthy sleep schedule is essential for preserving cardiovascular health. During sleep, blood pressure is reduced, and consequently, lack of sleep inevitably means that your blood pressure will remain higher for longer during the day. Elevated blood pressure is the most prominent risk factor for developing life-threatening heart conditions.

Lung Health

Interval/Endurance training: Interval and endurance training are the most potent positive factors of lung health. They positively affect all areas of the respiratory system, including the lungs and respiratory muscles. Specifically, they:

  • Strengthen the respiratory muscles
  • Improve oxygen transfer efficiency in the alveoli
  • Increase vital lung capacity

 

Micronutrient balance: Certain micronutrients have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties, which can directly target the pathogenesis of lung function decline, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and thus promote lung health. These are vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium.

 

Macronutrient balance: Carbohydrate metabolism acutely increases CO2 production and may deteriorate lung function in the long term, especially in older adults. Indeed, a carbohydrate-rich diet has been negatively associated with health markers of lung function, such as the FEV1, whereas protein and fat intake are inversely associated with lung function decline. This relationship is more powerful when carbohydrates derive from food sources rich in refined carbohydrates (sweets, refined grains) with low dietary fibre content.

 

Energy balance: Obesity is a significant risk factor for asthma, obstructive sleep apnea, and obstructive pulmonary disease. It also increases susceptibility to respiratory infections, and hospitalization rates are higher in obese patients with respiratory disease than in healthy-weight individuals. Fat accumulation in the abdominal area (visceral fat) is especially linked to asthma and impaired lung function, changing the normal physiology and part of the lungs.

 

Adequate sleep: Sleep deprivation has been shown to elicit the loss of breathing control, a risk factor for developing respiratory disorders such as asthma and COPD.

An Ounce of Prevention - Hyperion Health Blog

A woman is helping an older woman do exercises on an exercise ball in a gym.

What is a Kinesiologist?

By Jesse Oswald • January 29, 2025
What is a Kinesiologist?
A woman is wearing an oxygen mask while running on a treadmill.

Predicting Medical Costs with VO2max

By Jesse Oswald • January 20, 2025
Highlights Healthcare expenses are skyrocketing, with consumers and employers facing the significant brunt. Identifying those likely to get sick is critical as our resource-strapped healthcare system should focus on those likely to become the most significant burden to the system. VO2 max is a crucial longevity indicator that can also accurately predict healthcare expenses. The rampant chronic disease epidemic and the resulting surge in medical expenses is one of the most dire problems of modern societies, probably only second to climate change. Healthcare inflation is on a meteoric rise, and for those with limited or no healthcare coverage, a medical emergency is the equivalent of personal bankruptcy. A dire problem for employers In the US, employers and consumers who face rising health insurance premiums and astronomical out-of-pocket medical expenses feel the brunt of rising healthcare costs. Such is the problem that even large, well-capitalized corporations choose to send employees overseas for specific medical procedures since the cost of traveling and treatment in a foreign country is lower than the cost of care in the US. Another startling example is the infamous "northern caravan," a term that describes people with diabetes in the northern states who travel to Canada to secure their insulin supply. According to McKinsey , a survey conducted among over 300 employers highlighted that the average increase in the cost of health benefits over the past three years has been within the range of 6 to 7 percent. This survey also indicated that any rate increases exceeding 4 to 5 percent were deemed unsustainable. Interestingly, 95 percent of the surveyed employers expressed willingness to contemplate reducing benefits if costs surged by 4 percent or more. The primary cost-control measures that these employers indicated they might explore included elevating the portion of premium costs covered by employees and a potential transition to high-deductible health plans. Why is Breath Analysis relevant? Vis-a-vis this problem, the early and accurate estimation of who will get sick and how much they will cost is as critical as the treatment itself. The reason is that no other method of accurately identifying at-risk populations exists; it helps focus our scarce prevention resources and attention on those most in need. Breath analysis, AKA VO2max or metabolic testing, is an assessment that reveals two key biomarkers that provide significant predictive value for one's likelihood of developing costly chronic conditions. These two biomarkers are VO2max and the Respiratory Exchange Ratio. In this article, we will dive into VO2max to understand why it's a critical reflection of our overall health and, consequently, a window into our future healthcare spend. What is VO2max? Let's start with the basics. What is VO2max? VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen the human body can absorb. It is measured in terms of milliliters of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight. The below formula below indicates how VO2max is calculated: The numerator indicates the volume of oxygen your heart, lungs, and cells can absorb, expressed in milliliters per minute. The denominator indicates the weight of the individual represented in kilograms. 
There are many different types of fats in this picture.

Dietary Fat: An Essential Dietary Component Rather than the root of all Nutritional Health Issues

By Jesse Oswald • January 13, 2025
Key points A total fat intake between 20-35% ensures sufficient intake of essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins Omega-6 PUFAs are primarily found in vegetable oils, while omega-3 PUFAs are primarily found in fatty fish and fish oils Both omega-3 PUFAs and MUFAs have established benefits for cardiovascular disease TFAs are the only dietary lipids that have a strong positive relationship with cardiovascular disease Omega-3 PUFA supplementation increases the beneficial bacteria of the human microbiome Over the last three decades, there has been a great revolution against fat due to its suspected association with several nutritional health issues, especially cardiovascular disease. There was a tremendous amount of evidence that indicated dietary cholesterol and saturated fat as the main culprits of cardiovascular disease, thus morbidity and mortality. It was when all the low-fat and no-fat dairy products started to launch, promising even complete substitution of the cholesterol-lowering heart medication if these products were exclusively consumed. Let’s start from the beginning. Dietary fat intake can vary significantly and still meet energy and nutrient needs. International guidelines suggest a total fat intake between 20% and 35% of the daily caloric consumption. This range ensures sufficient intake of essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins. Not only does the quantity of the ingested fat matter, but most importantly, its quality. Some dietary fats have beneficial effects, with a significant role in maintaining good health, while others may threaten it. Which are, after all, the dietary fats? Dietary fats is a rather heterogeneous group of organic compounds, including four main types of fat, which are elaborately described in the following sections of this article. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have two or more carbon-carbon double bonds. Omega-6 PUFAs and omega-3 PUFAs are the main types of PUFAs and are classified according to the location of the first unsaturated bond (sixth and third carbon atom, respectively). Alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are the most important omega-3 PUFAs. ALA is an essential fatty acid that can only be obtained from diet and can be converted into EPA and then to DHA, but the rate of this conversion is finite, approximately 7.0%–21% for EPA and 0.01%–1% for DHA. In the same way, the most important omega-6 PUFAs are linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (ARA). LA is an essential fatty acid that, in order to give rise to ARA, needs to be ingested through the diet as the human body cannot synthesize it. The recommended intake for total PUFA ranges between 5% and 10% of the total energy intake, while a total omega-3 PUFA intake of 0.5%–2% and a total omega-6 PUFA intake of 2.5%-5% is suggested. A dietary ratio of omega−6/omega−3 PUFA is recommended to be 1:1–2:1 to balance their competing roles and achieve health benefits. Omega-6 and omega-3 PUFAs Omega-6 PUFAs, in the form of LA, are plentiful in most crop seeds and vegetable oils, such as canola, soybean, corn, and sunflower oils. In contrast to omega-6 PUFAs, omega-3 PUFAs are obtained from a limited range of dietary sources. Flax, chia, and perilla seeds are rich in ALA, with significant amounts also detected in green leafy vegetables. The consumption of fatty fish, such as salmon, sardines, tuna, trout, and herring, provides high amounts of EPA and DHA. Besides fish and their oils, small amounts of omega-3 PUFAs are also detected in red meat like beef, lamb, and mutton. All the above dietary sources provide EPA, DPA, DHA, LA, and ARA in different amounts, and their intake is necessary for normal physiological function. PUFAs play a critical role in many chronic diseases, affecting human cells by regulating inflammation, immune response, and angiogenesis. Omega-3 PUFAs’ role against hypertriglyceridemia has been clarified, and research indicates that systematically consuming oily fish can contribute to general heart protection. Supplementation with omega-3 PUFAs could potentially lower the risk of several cardiovascular outcomes, but the evidence is stronger for individuals with established coronary heart disease. Moreover, adequate EPA and DHA levels are necessary for brain anatomy, metabolism, and function. Although the mechanisms underlying omega-3 PUFAs' cardioprotective effects are still poorly understood, several studies have been conducted in this direction. Unfortunately, that does not hold true for their omega-6 counterparts, for which controversial emerging data tend to show anti-inflammatory behavior that needs to be further studied. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) In contrast to PUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are easily produced by the liver in response to the ingestion of carbohydrates. The main MUFA is oleic acid, found in plant sources, such as olive oil, olives, avocado, nuts, and seeds, while minimal amounts are also present in meat, eggs, and dairy products. Specific guidelines around MUFAs’ dietary consumption do not exist. Therefore, MUFAs are recommended to cover the remaining fat intake requirements to reach the total daily fat intake goal. A growing body of research shows that dietary MUFAs reduce or prevent the risk of metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hypertension by positively affecting insulin sensitivity, blood lipid levels, and blood pressure, respectively. Moreover, olive oil contains several bioactive substances, possessing anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities. According to a meta-analysis, consuming olive oil was linked to a lower risk of developing any sort of cancer, especially breast cancer and cancer of the digestive system. Another study found that an isocaloric replacement of 5% of the energy from saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with plant MUFAs led to an 11% drop in cancer mortality over a 16-year follow-up period. Therefore, including MUFAs in the everyday diet offers multifaceted benefits in chronic disease prevention and management, including cancer and general health promotion.  Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) form a heterogeneous group of fatty acids that contain only carbon-to-carbon single bonds. Whole-fat dairy, (unprocessed) red meat, milk chocolate, coconut, and palm kernel oil are all SFA-rich foods. These fatty acids have distinct physical and chemical profiles and varying effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins. Stearic, palmitic, myristic, and lauric acids are the principal SFAs found in most natural human diets. Dietary practice and guidelines recommend limiting SFA intake to <10% of the total energy (E%), while the American Heart Association suggests an even lower intake of <7 E% because total saturated fat consumption and LDL-C levels are positively correlated. However, the role of SFAs in CVDs is quite complex, and the evidence is heterogeneous. In a recent study with a 10.6-year follow-up period, which included 195,658 participants, there was no proof that consuming SFAs was linked to developing CVD while replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat was linked to an increased risk of CVD. Moreover, according to 6 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, cardiovascular outcomes and total mortality were not significantly impacted by substituting saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat. Even if these analyses were to be challenged, due to heterogenous evidence, the possible reduction in CVD risk associated with replacing SFAs with PUFAs in several studies may not necessarily be an outcome of SFAs’ negative effect but rather a potential positive benefit of PUFAs. Regarding SFAs' effect on different types of cancers, associations of their intake with an increased risk of prostate and breast cancer have been indicated. Conversely, a meta-analysis showed no link between SFA intake and a higher risk of colon cancer; similarly, consuming MUFAs, PUFAs, or total fat did not affect colon cancer risk. Hence, the role of SFA consumption in preventing, promoting, or having a neutral role in serious chronic diseases has not been fully elucidated yet. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are created industrially by partially hydrogenating liquid plant oils or can be naturally derived from ruminant-based meat and dairy products. TFAs are highly found in commercial baked goods, biscuits, cakes, fried foods, etc. Guidelines regarding TFAs are stringent and limit TFA intake to <1% of energy or as low as possible. In 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration declared that industrial TFAs are no longer generally recognized as safe and should be eliminated from the food supply as their consumption is strongly linked to various CVD risk factors. Specifically, TFA intake raises triglycerides and increases inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and hepatic fat synthesis, leading to a significantly increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). A meta-analysis suggested that increased TFA intake led to an increase in total and LDL-cholesterol and a decrease in HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Data also indicates that TFAs may influence carcinogenesis through inflammatory pathways, but the reported data are debatable. A recent study investigated the effects of all types of dietary fat intake on CVD risk. While PUFA, MUFA, and SFA intake were not linked to higher CVD risk, dietary TFA intake showed a strong association with CVD risk. Analysis indicated PUFA intake and CVD risk were inversely correlated, and the relative risk of CVD was reduced by 5% in studies with a 10-year follow-up. Dietary lipids and the human microbiome Dietary lipids also affect human microbiota composition. Studies have identified a close association between the human microbiome and metabolic diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diets with a high omega-6 PUFA, SFA, and TFA intake increase the amount of many detrimental bacteria in the microbiome and reduce the amount of the beneficial ones, altering the microbiota composition and inducing inflammation via the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These bacteria may disrupt the gut barrier function, allowing lipopolysaccharides (LPS) translocation, which are bacterial toxins. This condition is linked to metabolic perturbations such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and CVD. On the contrary, omega-3 PUFA (EPA and DHA) supplementation increases beneficial bacteria and limits harmful ones, enhancing intestinal barrier functioning and preventing LPS translocation and its implications. Omega-3 PUFA supplementation has also been studied as a means of mental health disorders management, but the evidence is still controversial. A possible protective impact of fish consumption on depression has been suggested by various studies, as well as a possible protective effect of dietary PUFAs on moderate cognitive impairment. A recent review of meta-analyses indicated that omega-3 PUFA supplementation might have potential value in mental health disorders, but data credibility is still weak. Dietary lipids and obesity Last but not least, obesity and its management is another field that dietary lipids intake seems to impact with their mechanisms. A diet high in PUFA has been shown to lower the total mass of subcutaneous white adipose tissue (the predominant fat type in human bodies), reduce blood lipid levels, and improve insulin sensitivity. In a study comparing PUFA and MUFA isocaloric intake, PUFA was more advantageous and lowered visceral adiposity in patients with central obesity. By stimulating brown adipose tissue, which aids energy expenditure through its elevated thermogenic activity, omega-3 PUFAs seem to elicit these positive effects in fat tissue, thus being useful in preventing and/or managing obesity. Another related study compared PUFA to SFA overfeeding in dietary surplus conditions that aimed to increase weight by 3%. While SFA overfeeding led to weight gain, primarily through the expansion of the visceral adipose tissue, PUFA overfeeding also led to weight gain, but because of a greater expansion of lean tissue mass. To sum up, dietary fats are an essential part of the human diet with many important physiologic functions, including cell function, hormone production, energy, and nutrient absorption. Moreover, dietary fat consumption is associated with positive outcomes in regard to cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, cancer, and depression. Therefore, there is no reason to demonize this valuable dietary component, incriminating it for irrelevant adverse health outcomes, primarily weight loss failure and obesity. References 1. Astrup A, Magkos F, Bier DM, Brenna JT, de Oliveira Otto MC, Hill JO, King JC, Mente A, Ordovas JM, Volek JS, Yusuf S, Krauss RM. Saturated fats and health: A reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations: JACC State-of-the-Art review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(7):844-857. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077 2. Bojková B, Winklewski PJ, Wszedybyl-Winlewska M. Dietary fat and cancer-Which is good, which is bad, and the body of evidence. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(11):4114. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114114 3. Custers, Emma EM, Kiliaan, Amanda J. Dietary lipids from body to brain. Prog Lipid Res. 2022;85:101144. DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2021.101144 4. de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, Cozma AI, Ha V, Kishibe T, Uleryk E, Budylowski P, Schünemann H, Beyene J, Anand SS. Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 2015;351:h3978. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.h3978 5. Gao X, Su X, Han X, Wen X, Cheng C, Zhang S, Li W, Cai J, Zheng L, Ma J, Liao M, Ni W, Liu T, Liu D, Ma W, Han S, Zhu S, Ye Y, Zeng F-F. Unsaturated fatty acids in mental disorders: An umbrella review of meta-analyses. Adv Nutr. 2022;13(6):2217-2236. DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmac084 6. Liu AG, Ford NA, Hu FB, Zelman KM, Mozaffarian D, Kris-Etherton PM. A healthy approach to dietary fats: understanding the science and taking action to reduce consumer confusion. Nutr J. 2017;16(1):53. DOI: 10.1186/s12937-017-0271-4 7. Poli A, Agostoni C, Visioli F. Dietary fatty acids and inflammation: Focus on the n-6 series. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(5):4567. DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054567 8. Saini RK, Keum Y-S. 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